Assembly Language programming

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAMMING

Note: To run examples or practice, please use 8086 emulator, WinAsm ect. You can search from search engines.

If you are not familiar with microprocessor architecture, please refer to microprocessor architecture and microprogramming in this blogs.

Machine language code consists of the 0-1 combinations that the computer decodes directly. However, the machine language has the following problems:

·         It greatly depends on machine and is difficult for most people to write in 0- 1 forms.

·         DEBUGGING is difficult.

·         Deciphering the machine code is very difficult.

·         Thus program logic will be difficult to understand.

To overcome these difficulties computer manufacturers have devised English-like Words to represent the binary instruction of a machine. This symbolic code for each instruction is called a mnemonic. The mnemonic for a particular instruction consists of letters that suggest the operation to be performed by that instruction. For example, ADD mnemonic is used for adding two numbers. Using these mnemonics machine language instructions can be written in symbolic form with each machine instruction represented by one equivalent symbolic instruction. This is called an assembly language.

Uses of Assembly Language

Assembly language is used primarily for writing short, specific, efficient interfacing modules/ subroutines. The basic idea of using assembly is to support the HLL with some highly efficient but non-portable routines. It will be worth mentioning here that UNIX mostly is written in C but has about 5-10% machine dependent assembly code. Similarly in telecommunication application assembly routine exists for enhancing efficiency.

An assembly program is written according to a strict set of rules. An editor or word processor is used for keying an assembly program into the computer as a file, and then the assembler is used to translate the program into machine code.

There are 2-ways of converting an assembly language program into machine language:

1)    Manual Assembly

2)    By using an assembler

Manual Assembly

It was an old method that required the programmer to translate each opcode into its numerical machine language representation by looking up a table of the microprocessor instructions set, which contains both assembly and machine language instructions. Manual assembly is acceptable for short programs but becomes very inconvenient for large programs. The Intel SDK-85 and most of the earlier university kits were programmed using manual assembly.

By using an assembler

The symbolic instructions that you code in assembly language is known as – Source program. An assembler program translates the source program into machine code, which is known as object program.

Steps required to assemble, link and execute a program are:

Step 1: The assembly step involves translating the source code into object code and generating an intermediate .OBJ (object file) or module. The assembler also creates a header immediately in front of the generated .OBJ module; part of the header contains information about incomplete addresses. The .OBJ module is not quite in executable form.

Step 2: The link step involves converting the .OBJ module to an .EXE machine code module. The linker's tasks include completing any address left open by the assembler and combining separately assembled programs into one executable module.

The linker:

·         Combines assembled module into one executable program.

·         Generates an .EXE module and initializes with special instructions to facilitate its subsequent loading for execution.

Step 3: The last step is to load the program for execution. Because the loader knows where the program is going to load in memory, it is now able to resolve any remaining address still left incomplete in the header. The loader drops the header and creates a program segment prefix immediately before the program is loaded in memory.

All this conversion and execution of Assembly language performed by Two-pass assembler.

Two-pass assembler: Assemblers typically make two or more passes through a source program in order to resolve forward references in a program. A forward reference is defined as a type of instruction in the code segment that is referencing the label of an instruction, but the assembler has not yet encountered the definition of that instruction.

Pass 1: Assembler reads the entire source program and constructs a symbol table of names and labels used in the program, that is, name of data fields and programs labels and their relative location (offset) within the segment.

Pass 1 determines the amount of code to be generated for each instruction

Pass 2: The assembler uses the symbol table that it constructed in Pass 1. Now it knows the length and relative position of each data field and instruction, it can complete the object code for each instruction. It produces .OBJ (Object file), .LST (list file) and cross reference (.CRF) files.

Tools required for assembly language programming Editor

'The editor is a program that allows the user to enter, modify, and store a group of instruction so r text under a file name. The editor programs can be classified in 2 groups.

·         Line editors

·         Full screen editors

Line editors, such as EDIT in MS DOS, work with the manage one line at a time. Full screen editors, such as Notepad, Wordpad etc. manage the full screen or a paragraph at a time. To write text, the user must call the editor under the control of the operating system. As soon as the editor program is transferred from the disk to the system memory, the program control is transferred from the operating system to the editor program. The editor has its own command and the user can enter and modify text by using those commands. Some editor programs such as WordPad are very easy to use. At the completion of writing a program, the exit command of the editor program will save the program on the disk under the file name and will transfer the control to the operating system. If the source file is intended to be a program in the 8086 assembly language the user should follow the syntax of the assembly language and the rules of the assembler.

Assembler

An assembly program is used to transfer assembly language mnemonics to the binary code for each instruction, after the complete program has been written, with the help of an editor it is then assembled with the help of an assembler. An assembler works in 2 phases, i.e., it reads your source code two times. In the first pass the assembler collects all the symbols defined in the program, along with their offsets in symbol table. On the second pass through the source program, it produces binary code for each instruction of the program, and gives all the symbols an offset with respect to the segment from the symbol table. The assembler generates three files. The object file, the list file and cross reference file. The object file contains the binary code for each instruction in the program. It is created only when your program has been successfully assembled with no errors. The errors that are detected by the assembler are called the symbol errors. For example:

MOVE AXl, ZX1;

In the statement, it reads the word MOVE, it tries to match with the mnemonic sets, as there is no mnemonic with this spelling, it assumes it to be an identifier and looks for its entry in the symbol table. It does not even find it there therefore gives an error as undeclared identifier. Some of the assemblers available on PC are MASM, TURBO etc.

Linker

For modularity of your programs, it is better to break your program into several subroutines. It is even better to put the common routine, like reading a hexadecimal number, writing hexadecimal number, etc., which could be used by a lot of your other programs into a separate file. These files are assembled separately. After each file has been successfully assembled, they can be linked together to form a large file, which constitutes your complete program. The file containing the common routines can be linked to your other program also. The program that links your program is called the linker.

The linker produces a link file, which contains the binary code for all compound modules. The linker also produces link maps, which contains the address information about the linked files. The linker however does not assign absolute addresses to your program. It only assigns continuous relative addresses to all the modules linked starting from the zero. This form a program is said to be re-locatable because it can be put anywhere in memory to be run.

Loader

Loader is a program which assigns absolute addresses to the program. These addresses are generated by adding the address from where the program is loaded into the memory to all the offsets. Loader comes into action when you want to execute your program. This program is brought from the secondary memory like disk. The file name extension for loading is .exe or .corn, which after loading can be executed by the CPU.

Debugger

The debugger is a program that allows the user to test and debug the object file. The user can employ this program to perform the following functions.

* Make changes in the object code.

* Examine and modify the contents of memory.

* Set breakpoints, execute a segment of the program and display register contents after the execution.

* Trace the execution of the specified segment of the program and display the register and memory contents after the execution of each instruction.

* Disassemble a section of the program, i.e., convert the object code into the source code or mnemonics.

In summary, to run an assembly program you may require your computer:

* A word processor like notepad

* MASM, TASM or Emulator

* LINK.EXE, it may be included in the assembler

* DEBUG.COM for debugging if the need to be.

Errors

Two possible kinds of errors can occur in assembly programs:

a. Programming errors: They are the familiar errors you can encounter in the course of executing a program written in any language.

b. System errors: These are unique to assembly language that permit low-level operations. A system error is one that corrupts or destroys the system under which the program is running - In assembly language there is no supervising interpreter or compiler to prevent a program from erasing itself or even from erasing the computer operating system.

ASSEMBLY PROGRAM AND ITS COMPONENTS

Sample Program

In this program we just display:

Line Numbers	Offset	Source Code
0001	DATA SEGMENT
0002	0000	MESSAGE DB "HAVE A NICE DAY!$"
0003	DATA ENDS
0004	STACK SEGMENT
0005	STACK 0400H
0006	STACK ENDS
0007	CODE SEGMENT
0008	ASSUME	CS: CODE, DS: DATA SS: STACK
0009	Offset Machine Code
0010	0000 B8XXXX	MOV AX, DATA
0011	0003 8ED8	MOV DS, AX
0012	0005 BAXXXX	MOV DX, OFFSET MESSAGE
0013	0008 B409	MOV AH, 09H
0014	000A CD21	INT 21H
0015	000C B8004C	MOV AX, 4COOH
0016	000F CD21	INT 21H
0017		CODE ENDS
0018		END

The details of this program are:

The Program Annotation

The program annotation consists of 3 columns of data: line numbers, offset and machine code.

·         The assembler assigns line numbers to the statements in the source file sequentially. If the assembler issues an error message; the message will contain a reference to one of these line numbers.

·         The second column from $e left contains offsets. Each offset indicates the address of an instruction or a datum as an offset from the base of its logical segment, e.g., the statement at line 0010 produces machine language at offset OOOOH of the CODE SEGMENT and the statement at line number 0002 produces machine language at offset OOOOH of the DATA SEGMENT.

·         The third column in the annotation displays the machine language produce by code instruction in the program.

Segment numbers: There is a good reason for not leaving the determination of segment numbers up to the assembler. It allows programs written in 8086 assembly language to be almost entirely re-locatable. They can be loaded practically anywhere in memory and run just as well. Program1 has to store the message "Have a nice', day$" somewhere in memory. It is located in the DATA SEGMENT. Since the characters are stored in ASCII, therefore it will occupy 15 bytes (please note each blank is also a character) in the DATA SEGMENT.

Missing offset: The xxxx in the machine language for the instruction at line 0010 is there because the assembler does not know the DATA segment location that will be determined at loading time. The loader must supply that value,

Program Source Code

Each assembly language statement appears as:

{identifier) Keyword {{parameter) ,) {;comment).

The element of a statement must appear in the appropriate order, but significance is attached to the column in which an element begins. Each statement must end with a carriage return, a line feed.

Keyword: A keyword is a statement that defines the nature of that statement. If the statement is a directive then the keyword will be the title of that directive; if the statement is a data-allocation statement the keyword will be a data definition type. Some examples of the keywords are: SBOMENT (directive), MOV (statement) etc.

Identifiers: An identifier is a name that you apply to an item in your program that you expect to reference. The two types of identifiers are name and label.

1. Name refers to the address of a data item such as counter, array etc.

2. Label refers to the: address of our instruction, process or segment. For example MAIN is the label for a process as:

MAIN PROC FAR

A20: BL,45 ; defines a label A20.

Identifier can use alphabet, digit or special character but it always starts with an alphabet.

Parameters: A parameter extends and refines the meaning that the assembler attributes to the keyword in a statement. The number of parameters is dependent on the Statement.

Comments: A comment is a string of a text that serves only as internal document action for a program. A semicolon identifies all subsequent text in a statement as a comment.

Directives

Assembly languages support a number of statements. This enables you to control the way in which a source program assembles and list. These statements, called directives, act only when the assembly is in progress and generate no machine executable code. Let us discuss some common directives.

1. List: A list directive causes the assembler to produce an annotated listing on the printer, the video screen, a disk drive or some combination of the three. An annotated listing shows the text of the assembly language programs, numbers of each statement in the program and the offset associated with each instruction and each datum. The advantage of list directive is that it produces much more informative output.

2. HEX: The HEX directive facilitates the coding of hexadecimal values in the body of the program. That statement directs the assembler to treat tokens in the source file that begins with a dollar sign as numeric constants in hexadecimal notation.

3. PROC Directive: The code segment contains the executable code for a program, which consists of one or more procedures defined initially with the PROC directive and ended with the ENDP directive.

Procedure-name PROC FAR ; Beginning of Procedure

Procedure-name ENDP FAR : End Procedure

4. END DIRECTIVE: ENDS directive ends a segment, ENDP directive ends a procedure and END directive ends the entire program that appears as the last statement.

5. ASSUME Directive: An .EXE program uses the SS register to address the base of stack, DS to address the base of data segment, CS to address base of the code segment and ES register to address the base of Extra segment. This directive tells the assembler to correlate segment register with a segment name. For example,

ASSUME SS: stack-seg-name, DS: data-seg-name, CS: code-seg-name.

6. SEGMENT Directive: The segment directive defines the logical segment to which subsequent instructions or data allocations statement belong. It also gives a segment name to the base of that segment. The address of every element in a 8086 assembly program must be represented in segment relative format. That means that every address must be expressed in terms of a segment register and an offset from the base of the segmented addressed by that register. By defining the base of a logical segment, a segment directive makes it possible to set a segment register to address that base and also makes it possible to calculate the offset of each element in that segment from a common base. An 8056 assembly language program consists of logical segment that can be a code segment, a stack segment, a data segment, and an extra segment. A segment directive indicates to assemble all statements following it in a single source file until an ENDS directive.

CODE SEGMENT

The logical program segment is named code segment. When the linker links a program it makes a note in the header section of the program's executable file describing the location of the code segment when the DOS invokes the loader to load an executable file into memory, the loader reads that note. As it loads the program into memory, the loader also makes notes to itself of exactly where in memory it actually places each of the program's other logical segments. As the loader hands execution over to the program it has just loaded, it sets the CS. register to address the base of the segment identified by the linker as the code segment. This renders every instruction in the code segment addressable in segment relative terms in the form CS: xxxx.

The linker also assumes by default that the first instruction in the code segment is intended to be the first instruction to be executed. That instruction will appear in memory at an offset of 0000H from the base of the code segment, so the linker passes that value on to the loader by leaving an another note in the header of the program's executable file. The loader sets the IP (Instruction Pointer) register to that value. This sets Q78:IP to the segment relative address of the first instruction in the program.

STACK SEGMENT

8086 Microprocessor supports the Word stack. The stack segment parameter tells the assembler to alert the linker that this segment statement defines the program stack area.

A program must have a stack area in that the computer is continuously carrying on several background operations that are completely transparent, even to all assembly language programmers.

Data Segments

It contains the data allocation statements for a program. This segment is very useful as it shows the data organization.

Defining Types of Data

The following format is used for defining data definition:

Format for data definition:

{Name) <Directive> <expression>

Name - a program references the data item through the name although it is optional.

Directive: Specifying the data type of assembly.

Expression: Represent a value or evaluated to value.

The list of directives is given below:

DUP Directive is used to duplicate the basic data definition to 'n' number of times.

ARRY DB 10 DUP (0)

In the above statement ARRAY is the name of the data item, which is of byte type (DB). This array contains 10 duplicate zero values; that is 10 zero values.

EQU directive is used to define a n a b to a constant

CONST EQU 20

Type of number used in data statements can be octal, binary, hexadecimal, decimal and ASCIII. The above statement defines a name CONST to a value 20.

Some other examples of sing these directives are:

Directive	Description	Number of Bytes
DB	Define byte	1
DW	Define word	2
DD	Define double word	4
DQ	Define Quad word	8
DT	Define 10 bytes	10

DUP Directive is used to duplicate the basic data definition to 'n' number of times.

ARRAY DB 10 DUP (0)

In the above statement ARRAY is the name of the data item, which is of byte type (DB). This array contains 10 duplicate zero values; that is 10 zero values.

EQU directive is used to define a n a b to a constant

CONST EQU 20

Type of number used in data statements can be octal, binary, hexadecimal, decimal and ASCIII. The above statement defines a name CONST to a value 20.

Some other examples of using these directives are:

TEMP	DB	0lll00lB	; Binary value in byte operand named temp
VALI	DW	73414	; Octal value assigned to word variable
Decimal	DB	49	; Decimal value 49 contained in byte variable
HEX	DW	03B2AH	; Hex decimal value in word operand
PBCV	DB	'EXAMPLE’	; ASCII array of values.

INPUT OUTPUT IN ASSEMBLY PROGRAM

A software interrupt is a call to an Interrupt servicing program located in the operating system. Usually the input-output routine in 8086 is constructed using these interrupts.

Interrupts

An interrupt causes interruption of an ongoing program. Some of the common interrupts are: keyboard, printer, monitor, an error condition, trap etc. 8886 recognize two kinds of interrupts: Hardware interrupts and Software interrupts.

Hardware interrupts are generated when a peripheral Interrupt servicing program requests for some service a software interrupt causes a call to the operating system. It usually is the input-output routine. Let us discuss the software interruption in more details. A software interrupt is initiated using the following statements:

INT    number

In 8086, this interrupt instruction is processing using the Interrupt Vector Table (IVT). The IVT is located in the first 1K bytes of memory and has a total of 256 entities, each of 4 bytes. An entry in the interrupt vector table is identified by the number given in the interruption. The entry stores the address of the operating system subroutine that is used to process the interrupt. This address may be different for different machines.

The interrupt is processed as:

Step 1: The number field in INT instruction is multiplied by 4 to find its entry in the interrupt vector table. For example, the IVT entry for instruction INT 10H will be found at IVT at an address 40H. Similarly the entry on INT 3H will be placed at 0CH.

Step 2: The CPU locates the interrupt servicing routine (ISR) whose address is stored at IVT entry of the interrupt. For example, the ISR of INT 10H is stored at location at a segment address F000H and an offset F065H.

Step 3: The CPU loads the CS register and the IP register, with this new address in the IVT and transfers the control to that address, just like a far CALL.

Step 4: IRET (interrupt return) causes the program to resume execution at the next instruction in the calling program.

Keyboard Input and Video Output

A Keystroke read from the keyboard is called a console input and a character displayed on the video screen is called a console output. In assembly language, reading and displaying character is most tedious to program. However, these tasks were greatly simplified by the convenient architecture of the 8086/8088. That architecture provides for a pack of software interrupt vectors beginning at address 0000:0000.

The advantage of this type QP call is that it appears static to a programmer but flexible to a system design engineer, For example, INT OOH is a special system level vector that points to the "recovery from division by zero" subroutine. If new designer come and want to move interrupt location in memory, it adjusts the entry in the IVT vector of interrupt OOH to a new location. Thus from the system programmer point of view, it is relatively easy to change the vectors under program control. One of the most commonly used Interrupts for Input /Output is called DOS function call.

DOS Function Calls (Using INT 21H)

INT 21H supports about 100 different functions. A function is identified by putting the function number in the AH register. For example, if we want to call function number 01, then we place this value in AH register first by using MOV instruction and then call INT 21H.

Some important DOS function calls are:

DOS Function Call	Purpose	Example
AH = 01H	For reading a single character from keyboard and echo it on monitor. The input value is put in AL register.	To get one character input in a variable in data segment you may include the following in the code segment: MOV AH,O1 INT 21H MOV X, AL (Please note that interrupt call will return value in AL which is being Transferred to variable of data segment X. X must be byte type).
AH = 02H	This function prints 8 bit data (normally ASCII) that is stored in DL register on the screen.	To print a character let say '?' on the screen we may have to use following set of commands: MOV AH, 02H; MOV DL, '?' INT 21H
AH = 08H	This is an input function for inputting one character. This is same as AH = 01H functions with the only difference that value does not get displayed on the screen.	Same example as 01 can be used only difference in this case would be that the input character wouldn't get displayed: MOV AH, 08H INT 21H MOV X, AL
AH = 09H	This program outputs a string whose offset is stored in DX register and that is terminated using a $ character. One can print newline, tab character Also.	To print a string "hello world" followed by a carriage return (control character) we may have to use the following assembly program segment.

Example of AH=09H

CR EQU ODH ; ASCII CODE OF CARRIAGE RETURN DATA SEGMENT STRING DB ‘HELLO WORLD’, CR, ‘$’ DATA ENDS CODE SEGMENT MOV AX, DATA MOV DS, AX MOV AH, 09H MOV DX, OFFSET STRING  ; STORE THE OFFSET OF STRING IN DX REGISTER INT 21H

Some examples of Input

(I)                             Input a single ASCII character into BL register without echo on screen

CODE SEGMENT MOV AH, 08H; Function 08H INT 21H; the character input in AL is MOV BL, AL; transfer to BL CODE ENDS

(ii) Input a Single Digit for example (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9)

CODE SEGMENT ; Read a single digit in BL register with echo. No error check in the Program MOV AH, 0lH INT 21H ; Assuming that the value entered is digit, and then its ASCII will be stored in AL. ; Suppose the key pressed is 1 then ASCII '31' is stored in the AL. To get the ; Digit 1 in AL subtracts the ASCII value '0' from the AL register. ; Here it store 0 as ASCII 30, ; 1 as 31, 2 as 32 ....... 9 as 39 ; To store 1 in memory subtract 30 to get 31 - 30 = 1 MOV BL, AL SUB BL, ‘0’; ‘0’ is digit 0 ASCII ; OR SUB BL, 30H ; Now BL contain the single digit 0 to 9 ; The only code missing here is to check whether the input is in the specific ; Range. CODE ENDS.

(iii) Input numbers like (10, 11..............9 9)

; If we want to store 39, it is actually 30 + 9

; and it is 3 x 10 + 9

; to input this value through keyboard, first we input the tenth digit e.g.,

; 3 and then type 9

MOV AH, 08H

INT 21H

MOV BL, AI; If we have input 39 then, BL will have first character

SUB BL, '0'

MUL BL, 4H ; To get 30 Multiply it by 19.

; Now BL Store 30

; Input another digit from keyboard

MOV AH, 08H

INT 21H;

MOV DL, AL ; Store AL in DL

SUB DL, '0' ; (39 - 30) -9.

; Now BL contains the value: 30 and DL has the value 9 add them and get the

; required numbers.

ADD BL,DL

; Now. BL store 39. We have 2 digit values in BL.

Let us try to summarize these segments as:

CODE SEGMENT

MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

; read first digit from keyboard

MOV AH, 08

INT 21H

MOV BL, AL

SUB BL, '0'

MUL BL, 10H

; read second digit from keyboard

MOV AH,08H

INT 21H

MOV DL, AL

SUB DL, '0'

; DL=9 AND BL-30

SUM BL,DL

; now BL store 39

CODE ENDS.

Note: Boilerplate code is the code that is present more or less in the same form in every assembly language program.

String Input

Examples of Display on Video Monitor

(1) Displaying a single character

; display contents of BL register (assume that it has a single character)

MOV AH, 02H

MOV DL, BL.

INT 21H

Here data from BL is moved to DL and then data display on monitor function is called which displays the contents of DL register,

(2) Displaying a single digit (0 to 9)

Assume that a value 5 is stored in DL register, then to output BL as ASCII value add character '0' to it

ADD BL, '0'

MOV AH, 02H

MOV DL, BL

INT 21H

(3) Displaying a number (10 to 99)

Assuming that the two digit number 59 is stored as number 5 in BH and number 9 in BL to convert them to equivalent ASCII we will add '0' to each of them.

ADD BH, '0'

ADD BL, '0'

MOV AH, 02H

MOV DL, BH

INT 21H

MOV DL, BL

INT 21H

(4) Displaying a siring

MOV AH, 09H

MOV DX, OFFSET BUFF

INT 21H

Here data in input buffer stored in data segment is going to be displayed on the monitor.

A complete program:

Input a letter from keyboard and respond. "The letter you typed is     ".

CODE SEGMENT

; set the DS register

MOV AX, DATA

MOV DS, AX

; READ KEYBOARD

MOV AH, 08H

INT 21H

; SAVE INPUT

MOV BL, AL

; DISPLAY FIRST PART OF MESSAGE

MOV AH, 09H

MOV DX, OFFSET MESSAGE

INT 21H

; DISPLAY CHARACTER OF BL REGISTER

MOV AH, 02H

MOV DL, BL

INT 21H

; EXIT TO DOS

MOV AX, 4C00H

INT 21H

CODE ENDS

DATA SEGEMNT

MESSAGE DB “THE LETTER YOU TYPED IS $”

DATA ENDS

END

Types of Assembly programs

Assembly language programs can be written in two ways:

COM program: Having all the segments as part of one segment.

EXE program: Which have more than one segment.

COM Programs

A COM (Command) program is the binary image of a machine language program. It is loaded in the memory at the lowest available segment address. The program code begins at an offset 100h, the first 1K locations begin occupied by the IVT. A COM program keeps its code, data and stack segments within the same segment. Since the offsets in a physical segment can be of 16 bits, therefore the size of COM program is limited to 2¹⁰=64K which includes code, data and stack

EXE Programs

An EXE program is stored on disk with extension .exc.  EXE programs are longer than the C'OM programs, as each EXE program is associated with an EXE header of 256 bytes followed by a load module containing the program itself. The EXE head contains information for the operating system to calculate the addresses of segments and other components. The load module of EXE program consists of up to 64K segments, although at the most only four segments may be active at any time. The segments may be of variable size, with maximums size being 64K. We will write only EXE programs for the following reasons:

·         EXE programs are better suited for debugging.

·         EXE-format assembler programs are more easily converted into subroutines for high-level languages.

·         EXE programs are more easily reloadable. Because, there is no ORG statement, forcing the program to be loaded from a specific address.

·         To fully use multitasking operating system, programs must be able 10 share computer memory and resources. An EXE program is easily able to do this.

EXE program Example

; REGISTERS Uses CS, DS, AX

DATA SEGMENT

NUMI DB 15h                       ; First number

NUM2 DB 20h                       ; Second number

RESULT DB ?                       ; Put sum here

CARRY DB ?                         ; Put any carry here

DATA ENDS

 CODE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE, DS: DATA

START MOV AX, DATA      ; Initialize data segment

MOV DS, AX                                     ; register using AX

MOV AL, NUM1                   ; Bring the first number in AL

ADD AL, NUM2                    ; add the second number to AL

MOV RESULT, AL               ; Store the result

RCL .AL, 01                           ; rotate carry into Least Significant Bit (LSB)

AND AL, 0000000lB                         ; Mask out all but LSB

MOV CARRY, AL                 ; Store the carry

MOV AX, 4C00h                   ; Terminate to DOS

INT 21H

CODE ENDS

ENE START

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